Deletion of absent in melanoma (AIM) 2 gene alters bone morphology.

Absent in Melanoma (AIM) 2 is a gene that is induced by interferon and acts as a cytosolic sensor for double-stranded (ds) DNA. It forms the AIM2 inflammasome, leading to the production of interleukin (IL)-1ß and IL-18. Our previous research demonstrated that mice lacking AIM2 exhibit spontaneous obesity, insulin resistance, and inflammation in adipose tissue. In this study, we aimed to explore the impact of AIM2 gene deletion on bone structure in adult and aged mice. Utilizing micro-computed tomography (micro-CT), we discovered that female mice lacking AIM2 showed an increase in the total cross-sectional area at 5 months of age, accompanied by an increase in cortical thickness in the mid-diaphysis of the femur at both 5 and 15 months of age. At 15 months of age, the cortical bone mineral density (BMD) significantly decreased in AIM2 null females compared to wild-type (WT) mice. In AIM2 null mice, both trabecular bone volume and BMD at the distal metaphysis of the femur significantly decreased at 5 and 15 months of age. Similarly, micro-CT analysis of the L4 vertebra revealed significant decreases in trabecular bone volume and BMD in aged AIM2 null females compared to WT mice. Histological examination of femurs from aged mice demonstrated increased bone marrow adiposity in AIM2 null mice, accompanied by a significant increase in CD45-/CD31-/Sca1+/Pdgfa+ adipose progenitor cells, and a decrease in the ratio of CD31-/CD31+ osteogenic progenitor cells, as determined by flow cytometry of bone marrow cells. Our findings suggest that AIM2 deficiency affects bone health by promoting adipogenesis in bone marrow cells and inducing a pro-inflammatory environment, potentially contributing to the decreased bone mineral density.

The Myc-Like Mlx Network Impacts Aging and Metabolism.

The "Mlx" and "Myc" Networks share many common gene targets. Just as Myc's activity depends upon its heterodimerization with Max, the Mlx Network requires that the Max-like factor Mlx associate with the Myc-like factors MondoA or ChREBP. We show here that body-wide Mlx inactivation, like that of Myc, accelerates numerous aging-related phenotypes pertaining to body habitus and metabolism. The deregulation of numerous aging-related Myc target gene sets is also accelerated. Among other functions, these gene sets often regulate ribosomal and mitochondrial structure and function, genomic stability and aging. Whereas "MycKO" mice have an extended lifespan because of a lower cancer incidence, "MlxKO" mice have normal lifespans and a somewhat higher cancer incidence. Like Myc, Mlx, MondoA and ChREBP expression and that of their target genes, deteriorate with age in both mice and humans, underscoring the importance of life-long and balanced cross-talk between the two Networks to maintain normal aging.

Complex II Biology in Aging, Health, and Disease.

Aging is associated with a decline in mitochondrial function which may contribute to age-related diseases such as neurodegeneration, cancer, and cardiovascular diseases. Recently, mitochondrial Complex II has emerged as an important player in the aging process. Mitochondrial Complex II converts succinate to fumarate and plays an essential role in both the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle and the electron transport chain (ETC). The dysfunction of Complex II not only limits mitochondrial energy production; it may also promote oxidative stress, contributing, over time, to cellular damage, aging, and disease. Intriguingly, succinate, the substrate for Complex II which accumulates during mitochondrial dysfunction, has been shown to have widespread effects as a signaling molecule. Here, we review recent advances related to understanding the function of Complex II, succinate signaling, and their combined roles in aging and aging-related diseases.

Premature aging and reduced cancer incidence associated with near-complete body-wide Myc inactivation.

MYC proto-oncogene dysregulation alters metabolism, translation, and other functions in ways that support tumor induction and maintenance. Although Myc+/- mice are healthier and longer-lived than control mice, the long-term ramifications of more complete Myc loss remain unknown. We now describe the chronic consequences of body-wide Myc inactivation initiated postnatally. "MycKO" mice acquire numerous features of premature aging, including altered body composition and habitus, metabolic dysfunction, hepatic steatosis, and dysregulation of gene sets involved in functions that normally deteriorate with aging. Yet, MycKO mice have extended lifespans that correlate with a 3- to 4-fold lower lifetime cancer incidence. Aging tissues from normal mice and humans also downregulate Myc and gradually alter many of the same Myc target gene sets seen in MycKO mice. Normal aging and its associated cancer predisposition are thus highly linked via Myc.

Serum α-KL, a potential early marker of diabetes complications in youth with T1D, is regulated by miRNA 192.

Despite the wealth of information on biomarkers of diabetes complications in adults with type 1 diabetes, data in the pediatric population is limited. Diabetic nephropathy (DN), the leading cause of mortality in type 1 diabetes T1D), could be potentially missed in youth, as albuminuria, the current "gold" standard, may be transient and may not reflect permanent renal impairment. Soluble alpha KL has emerged as a potential marker of early diabetic nephropathy. Seventy-nine pediatric patients with type 1 diabetes meeting ISPAD criteria for nephropathy screening were consecutively recruited (90% Caucasian, 51% male, mean age 16.1 ± 3.1 years, duration of T1D 7.2 ± 3.9 years, 2-year average HbA1c 8.0 ± 1.3%, and serum and urine samples were collected for analysis. Serum Klotho (KL) and circulating miRNA levels of select miRNA involved in the pathogenesis of DN were estimated. KL had a strong inverse correlation with diabetes duration and HbA1c, two important risk factors in the development of diabetes complications. Serum miR-192 were negatively associated with KL among children with prolonged duration of diabetes (≥12 years) after adjustment for age and sex. In cell culture, overexpression of miR-192 significantly downregulated KL mRNA and protein levels, and reduced KL levels in the media. miR-192 mimic reduced luciferase activity in a reporter containing the KL 3' UTR (60% compared to controls, p<0.01), and the inhibitor rescued it. Deletion of a potential binding site for miR-192 in the KL 3'UTR completely abolished the effect of miR-192 in the reporter assay, suggesting that KL is a direct target gene of miR-192. Overexpression of miR-192 significantly increased oxidative stress (MDA) and expression of inflammatory and senescence markers IL-6 and p16. Inhibition of miR-192 significantly reduced levels of MDA, IL-6 and p16. In summary, we demonstrate an increase in miR-192 and a decrease in KL levels in children with prolonged duration of T1D. We demonstrate a novel role for miR-192 in directly regulating KL levels, and through that, senescence and oxidative stress, key pathological processes in the development of DN. miR-192 and/or KL levels are altered with severity and duration of diabetes and could serve as early biomarkers for DN.

Serum Metabolomics Reveals Distinct Profiles during Ischemia and Reperfusion in a Porcine Model of Myocardial Ischemia-Reperfusion.

Acute myocardial infarction (MI) is one of the leading causes of death worldwide. Early identification of ischemia and establishing reperfusion remain cornerstones in the treatment of MI, as mortality and morbidity can be significantly reduced by establishing reperfusion to the affected areas. The aim of the current study was to investigate the metabolomic changes in the serum in a swine model of MI induced by ischemia and reperfusion (I/R) injury, and to identify circulating metabolomic biomarkers for myocardial injury at different phases. Female Yucatan minipigs were subjected to 60 min of ischemia followed by reperfusion, and serum samples were collected at baseline, 60 min of ischemia, 4 h of reperfusion, and 24 h of reperfusion. Circulating metabolites were analyzed using an untargeted metabolomic approach. A bioinformatic approach revealed that serum metabolites show distinct profiles during ischemia and during early and late reperfusion. Some notable changes during ischemia include accumulation of metabolites that indicate impaired mitochondrial function and N-terminally modified amino acids. Changes in branched-chain amino-acid metabolites were noted during early reperfusion, while bile acid pathway derivatives and intermediates predominated in the late reperfusion phases. This indicates a potential for such an approach toward identification of the distinct phases of ischemia and reperfusion in clinical situations.

Circulating humanin is lower in coronary artery disease and is a prognostic biomarker for major cardiac events in humans.

BACKGROUND: Humanin is an endogenous mitochondria-derived peptide that plays critical roles in oxidative stress, inflammation and CAD. In this study, we measured the levels of circulating humanin, markers of oxidative stress and inflammation in patients with unstable angina and MI and studied the relationship between these parameters and major adverse cardiac events (MACE). METHODS: A total of 327 subjects were recruited from the inpatient department at First Hospital of Jilin University and divided into 3 groups [control, angina and myocardial infarction (MI)] based on the clinical data and the results of the angiography. Serum humanin and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) were measured at the time of initial admission. The hospitalization data and MACE of all patients were collected. RESULTS: Circulating humanin levels were lower in the angina group compared to controls [124.22 ±â€¯63.02 vs. 157.77 ±â€¯99.93 pg/ml, p < 0.05] and even lower in MI patients [67.17 ±â€¯24.35 pg/ml, p < 0.05 vs controls] and oxidative stress marker were higher in MI patients compared to the control and angina groups [12.94 ±â€¯4.55 vs. 8.26 ±â€¯1.66 vs. 9.06 ±â€¯2.47 umol/ml, p < 0.05]. Lower circulating humanin levels was an independent risk factor of MI patients. Circulating humanin levels could be used to predict MACE in angina group. CONCLUSIONS: Lower circulating humanin levels was an independent risk factor for CAD, and a potential prognostic marker for mild CAD. GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE: Humanin may become a new index for the diagnosis and treatment of CAD.

Cardio-protective role of Humanin in myocardial ischemia-reperfusion.

Mitochondria-derived peptides (MDPs) are bioactive peptides encoded by and secreted from the mitochondria. To date, a few MDPs including humanin, MOTS-c and SHLP1-6, and their diverse biological functions have been identified. The first and most studied MDP is humanin, a 24-amino-acid poly peptide. It was first identified in 2001 in the surviving neurons of patient with Alzheimer's disease, and since then has been well characterized for its neuro-protective effect through inhibition of apoptosis. Over the past two decades, humanin has been reported to play critical roles in aging as well as multiple diseases including metabolic disorders, cardiovascular diseases, and autoimmune disease. Humanin has been shown to modulate multiple biological processes including autophagy, ER stress, cellular metabolism, oxidative stress, and inflammation. A role for humanin has been shown in a wide range of cardiovascular diseases, such as coronary heart disease, atherosclerosis, and myocardial fibrosis. In this minireview, we will summarize the literature demonstrating a role for humanin in cardio-protection following myocardial ischemia-reperfusion induced injury and the potential mechanisms that mediate it.

Efficacy of a Novel Mitochondrial-Derived Peptide in a Porcine Model of Myocardial Ischemia/Reperfusion Injury.

With the complexities that surround myocardial ischemia/reperfusion (MI/R) injury, therapies adjunctive to reperfusion that elicit beneficial pleiotropic effects and do not overlap with standard of care are necessary. This study found that the mitochondrial-derived peptide S14G-humanin (HNG) (2 mg/kg), an analogue of humanin, reduced infarct size in a large animal model of MI/R. However, when ischemic time was increased, the infarct-sparing effects were abolished with the same dose of HNG. Thus, although the 60-min MI/R study showed that HNG cardioprotection translates beyond small animal models, further studies are needed to optimize HNG therapy for longer, more patient-relevant periods of cardiac ischemia.

Role of mitochondrial acyl-CoA dehydrogenases in the metabolism of dicarboxylic fatty acids.

Dicarboxylic fatty acids, taken as a nutritional supplement or produced endogenously via omega oxidation of monocarboxylic fatty acids, may have therapeutic potential for rare inborn errors of metabolism as well as common metabolic diseases such as type 2 diabetes. Breakdown of dicarboxylic acids yields acetyl-CoA and succinyl-CoA as products, the latter of which is anaplerotic for the TCA cycle. However, little is known about the metabolic pathways responsible for degradation of dicarboxylic acids. Here, we demonstrated with whole-cell fatty acid oxidation assays that both mitochondria and peroxisomes contribute to dicarboxylic acid degradation. Several mitochondrial acyl-CoA dehydrogenases were tested for activity against dicarboxylyl-CoAs. Medium-chain acyl-CoA dehydrogenase (MCAD) exhibited activity with both six and 12 carbon dicarboxylyl-CoAs, and the capacity for dehydrogenation of these substrates was significantly reduced in MCAD knockout mouse liver. However, when dicarboxylic acids were fed to normal mice, the expression of MCAD did not change, while expression of peroxisomal fatty acid oxidation enzymes was greatly upregulated. In conclusion, mitochondrial fatty acid oxidation, and in particular MCAD, contributes to dicarboxylic acid degradation, but feeding dicarboxylic acids induces only the peroxisomal pathway.

Deficiency in AIM2 induces inflammation and adipogenesis in white adipose tissue leading to obesity and insulin resistance.

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS: Absent in melanoma 2 (AIM2) is a cytosolic sensor for double-stranded DNA and a tumour suppressor. Binding of double-stranded DNA to AIM2 forms the AIM2 inflammasome, leading to activation of caspase-1 and production of IL-1ß and IL-18. Although inflammasome-independent effects of AIM2 have been reported, its role in energy metabolism is unknown. We aimed to evaluate the effect of AIM2 in energy metabolism and glucose homeostasis. METHODS: Male and female whole body Aim2 knockout (Aim2-/-) mice were used in the current study. Body weight, food intake, body composition, energy expenditure, fasting blood glucose levels, GTT and body temperature were measured at indicated time points. RNA sequencing was carried out on gonadal white adipose tissue (gWAT) in 14-month-old female mice. mRNA and protein levels in tissues were analysed by quantitative real-time PCR and immunoblot. Immune cell infiltration in gWAT was examined by flow cytometry. Stromal vascular fractions isolated from gWAT were used to investigate adipocyte differentiation. RESULTS: Male and female Aim2-/- mice were obese compared with wild-type controls from 7 weeks of age until 51 weeks of age, with increased adiposity in both subcutaneous and visceral fat depots. While there were no differences in food intake, Aim2-/- mice demonstrated decreased energy expenditure and impaired brown adipose tissue function compared with wild-type controls. Fasting glucose and insulin levels were elevated, and Aim2-/- mice were glucose intolerant on intraperitoneal GTT. RNA sequencing revealed marked upregulation of the IFN-inducible gene Ifi202b, which encodes protein 202 (p202) and elevated inflammatory signalling in gWAT of Aim2-/- mice. Increased infiltration of total and Ly6Clow monocytes was noted at 8 weeks of age in gWAT, before the onset of obesity and insulin resistance. Ifi202b knockdown blocked adipogenesis in stromal vascular fractions and reduced inflammation in bone marrow-derived macrophages, demonstrating a key role of p202 in mediating the increased adipogenesis and inflammation in Aim2-/- mice. CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION: These results demonstrate a fundamental role for AIM2 in energy metabolism, inflammation and insulin resistance. Our studies establish a novel link between the innate immunity proteins, AIM2 and p202, and metabolism.

In utero exposure to maternal diabetes impairs nephron progenitor differentiation.

The incidence of diabetes mellitus has significantly increased among women of childbearing age, and it has been shown that prenatal exposure to maternal diabetes increases the risk of associated congenital anomalies of the kidney. Congenital anomalies of the kidney are among the leading causes of chronic kidney disease in children. To better understand the effect of maternal diabetes on kidney development, we analyzed wild-type offspring (DM_Exp) of diabetic Ins2+/C96Y mice (Akita mice). DM_Exp mice at postnatal day 34 have a reduction of ~20% in the total nephron number compared with controls, using the gold standard physical dissector/fractionator method. At the molecular level, the expression of the nephron progenitor markers sine oculis homeobox homolog 2 and Cited1 was increased in DM_Exp kidneys at postnatal day 2. Conversely, the number of early developing nephrons was diminished in DM_Exp kidneys. This was associated with decreased expression of the intracellular domain of Notch1 and the canonical Wnt target lymphoid enhancer binding factor 1. Together, these data suggest that the diabetic intrauterine environment impairs the differentiation of nephron progenitors into nephrons, possibly by perturbing the Notch and Wnt/ß-catenin signaling pathways.

An analog of glibenclamide selectively enhances autophagic degradation of misfolded α1-antitrypsin Z.

The classical form of α1-antitrypsin deficiency (ATD) is characterized by intracellular accumulation of the misfolded variant α1-antitrypsin Z (ATZ) and severe liver disease in some of the affected individuals. In this study, we investigated the possibility of discovering novel therapeutic agents that would reduce ATZ accumulation by interrogating a C. elegans model of ATD with high-content genome-wide RNAi screening and computational systems pharmacology strategies. The RNAi screening was utilized to identify genes that modify the intracellular accumulation of ATZ and a novel computational pipeline was developed to make high confidence predictions on repurposable drugs. This approach identified glibenclamide (GLB), a sulfonylurea drug that has been used broadly in clinical medicine as an oral hypoglycemic agent. Here we show that GLB promotes autophagic degradation of misfolded ATZ in mammalian cell line models of ATD. Furthermore, an analog of GLB reduces hepatic ATZ accumulation and hepatic fibrosis in a mouse model in vivo without affecting blood glucose or insulin levels. These results provide support for a drug discovery strategy using simple organisms as human disease models combined with genetic and computational screening methods. They also show that GLB and/or at least one of its analogs can be immediately tested to arrest the progression of human ATD liver disease.

Membrane Trafficking Protein CDP138 Regulates Fat Browning and Insulin Sensitivity through Controlling Catecholamine Release.

CDP138 is a calcium- and lipid-binding protein that is involved in membrane trafficking. Here, we report that mice without CDP138 develop obesity under normal chow diet (NCD) or high-fat diet (HFD) conditions. CDP138-/- mice have lower energy expenditure, oxygen consumption, and body temperature than wild-type (WT) mice. CDP138 is exclusively expressed in adrenal medulla and is colocalized with tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), a marker of sympathetic nervous terminals, in the inguinal fat. Compared with WT controls, CDP138-/- mice had altered catecholamine levels in circulation, adrenal gland, and inguinal fat. Adrenergic signaling on cyclic AMP (cAMP) formation and hormone-sensitive lipase (HSL) phosphorylation induced by cold challenge but not by an exogenous ß3 adrenoceptor against CL316243 were decreased in adipose tissues of CDP138-/- mice. Cold-induced beige fat browning, fatty acid oxidation, thermogenesis, and related gene expression were reduced in CDP138-/- mice. CDP138-/- mice are also prone to HFD-induced insulin resistance, as assessed by Akt phosphorylation and glucose transport in skeletal muscles. Our data indicate that CDP138 is a regulator of stress response and plays a significant role in adipose tissue browning, energy balance, and insulin sensitivity through regulating catecholamine secretion from the sympathetic nervous terminals and adrenal gland.

Metabolic pathways at the crossroads of diabetes and inborn errors.

Research over the past two decades has led to advances in our understanding of the genetic and metabolic factors that underlie the pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). While T2DM is defined by its hallmark metabolic symptoms, the genetic risk factors for T2DM are more immune-related than metabolism-related, and the observed metabolic disease may be secondary to chronic inflammation. Regardless, these metabolic changes are not benign, as the accumulation of some metabolic intermediates serves to further drive the inflammation and cell stress, eventually leading to insulin resistance and ultimately to T2DM. Because many of the biochemical changes observed in the pre-diabetic state (i.e., ectopic lipid storage, increased acylcarnitines, increased branched-chain amino acids) are also observed in patients with rare inborn errors of fatty acid and amino acid metabolism, an interesting question is raised regarding whether isolated metabolic gene defects can confer an increased risk for T2DM. In this review, we attempt to address this question by summarizing the literature regarding the metabolic pathways at the crossroads of diabetes and inborn errors of metabolism. Studies using cell culture and animal models have revealed that, within a given pathway, disrupting some genes can lead to insulin resistance while for others there may be no effect or even improved insulin sensitivity. This differential response to ablating a single metabolic gene appears to be dependent upon the specific metabolic intermediates that accumulate and whether these intermediates subsequently activate inflammatory pathways. This highlights the need for future studies to determine whether certain inborn errors may confer increased risk for diabetes as the patients age.

Investigating the link of ACAD10 deficiency to type 2 diabetes mellitus.

The Native American Pima population has the highest incidence of insulin resistance (IR) and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) of any reported population, but the pathophysiologic mechanism is unknown. Genetic studies in Pima Indians have linked acyl-CoA dehydrogenase 10 (ACAD10) gene polymorphisms, among others, to this predisposition. The gene codes for a protein with a C-terminus region that is structurally similar to members of a family of flavoenzymes-the acyl-CoA dehydrogenases (ACADs)-that catalyze α,ß-dehydrogenation reactions, including the first step in mitochondrial FAO (FAO), and intermediary reactions in amino acids catabolism. Dysregulation of FAO and an increase in plasma acylcarnitines are recognized as important in the pathophysiology of IR and T2DM. To investigate the deficiency of ACAD10 as a monogenic risk factor for T2DM in human, an Acad-deficient mouse was generated and characterized. The deficient mice exhibit an abnormal glucose tolerance test and elevated insulin levels. Blood acylcarnitine analysis shows an increase in long-chain species in the older mice. Nonspecific variable pattern of elevated short-terminal branch-chain acylcarnitines in a variety of tissues was also observed. Acad10 mice accumulate excess abdominal adipose tissue, develop an early inflammatory liver process, exhibit fasting rhabdomyolysis, and have abnormal skeletal muscle mitochondria. Our results identify Acad10 as a genetic determinant of T2DM in mice and provide a model to further investigate genetic determinants for insulin resistance in humans.

Ultraviolet-Ray-Induced Sea Cucumber (Stichopus japonicus) Melting Is Mediated by the Caspase-Dependent Mitochondrial Apoptotic Pathway.

Sea cucumber body-wall melting occurs under certain circumstances. We have shown that apoptosis but not autolysis plays a critical role in the initial stage. However, it is still unclear how apoptosis is triggered in this process. In this study, we examined the levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS), the levels of B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2) and Bcl-2-associated X (Bax) proteins, the depolarization of mitochondrial transmembrane potentials, and cytochrome c (Cyt c) release during sea cucumber melting induced by ultraviolet (UV) exposure. We also investigated the contribution of caspase in this process by injecting a pan-caspase inhibitor. Our data showed that UV exposure stimulates ROS production, dysfunction of mitochondria, and the release of Cyt c in sea cucumber coelomic fluid cells and body walls. We found a decrease of Bcl-2 and increase of Bax in the mitochondria after UV exposure. We also demonstrated that these changes are associated with elevated caspase-9 and -3 activity. Finally, our data showed that the inhibition of caspases-9 and -3 using an inhibitor suppresses UV-induced sea cucumber melting. These results suggest that apoptosis during sea cucumber melting is mediated by mitochondrial dysfunction and follows the activation of the caspase-signaling pathway. This study presents a novel insight into the mechanism of sea cucumber melting.

Humanin is an endogenous activator of chaperone-mediated autophagy.

Chaperone-mediated autophagy (CMA) serves as quality control during stress conditions through selective degradation of cytosolic proteins in lysosomes. Humanin (HN) is a mitochondria-associated peptide that offers cytoprotective, cardioprotective, and neuroprotective effects in vivo and in vitro. In this study, we demonstrate that HN directly activates CMA by increasing substrate binding and translocation into lysosomes. The potent HN analogue HNG protects from stressor-induced cell death in fibroblasts, cardiomyoblasts, neuronal cells, and primary cardiomyocytes. The protective effects are lost in CMA-deficient cells, suggesting that they are mediated through the activation of CMA. We identified that a fraction of endogenous HN is present at the cytosolic side of the lysosomal membrane, where it interacts with heat shock protein 90 (HSP90) and stabilizes binding of this chaperone to CMA substrates as they bind to the membrane. Inhibition of HSP90 blocks the effect of HNG on substrate translocation and abolishes the cytoprotective effects. Our study provides a novel mechanism by which HN exerts its cardioprotective and neuroprotective effects.

Corrigendum to "Pancreatic Function, Type 2 Diabetes, and Metabolism in Aging".

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1155/2012/320482.].